Resources
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography aspires to share
with experienced and inexperienced readers alike a cross-section
of the body of research that is generally refereed to as Crime
Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). While a substantial
portion of the available literature has been amassed, this bibliography
is not exhaustive. Instead, it is focused upon research
and publications that pertain to crime in open spaces.
The bibliography consists of relevant
examples from CPTED as well as related areas. For example, the
effects of crime on park patrons is an important issue, but the
lack of research in this area requires that general public responses
to crime be examined. The result is a compilation of literature
that has direct applications to most every built environment.
If you locate works that would be
worthwhile additions to this compilation please forward them
to: o2design@wsu.edu, either through an attachment or
in the body of an email message.
NOTE: All works have been entered according to the Publication
Manual of the APA (4th ed.), sans underlining. Works in Bold
include annotations.
A
Abrams, G., Ataov,
A., Courson, W., Imeokparia, T., Melsheimer, W., Nasar, J. L.,
& Nix, R. (1993). A community safety guide for the City of
Columbus. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University, City &
Regional Planning 851, Precinct Planning.
This guide was
developed within a university course as a product for the community.
The manual addresses ways by which the planning, design and
maintenance of the environment may aid in reducing crime. It
details the following six approaches: 1) increase personal guardianship,
2) increase natural surveillance, 3) increase visual control,
4) impede the criminal's approach and escape, 5) increase territoriality,
and 6) increase sense of community. The net product is a good
introduction to practical measures which cities or communities
may take to deter criminals (text is supported with copious photographs,
sketches and site plans).
Ahlberg,
J., & Knutsson, J. (1990). The risk of detection. Journal
of Quantitative Criminology, 6, 117-130.
This work examines means by which the likelihood of an offender
being detected may be calculated. However, the formulas presented
are not meant to be applied at the individual or situational
level, rather they are for estimating figures for the populous
of offenders. The authors discuss "the dark figure"
(i.e., the number of "crimes not detected and crimes not
reported") and "the clearance rate" (i.e., "the
percentage of the crimes reported whichare considered cleared"
by police). The authors also point out that detection at the
situational level is composed of "total risk of detection"
and the "primary risk of detection". The primary risk
refers to being caught in the act, versus all possible means
of being detected (e.g., post facto). Surprisingly, the authors
do not believe that offenders have much control over getting
"caught red-handed", saying that "to get caught
in the act is a random occurrence."
Ahlstrom,
R. V. N., Adair, M., Euler, R. T., & Euler, R. C. (1992).
Pothunting in Central Arizona: The Perry Mesa archeological site
vandalism study (Cultural Resources Report No. 13). Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Alfano, S. S., & Magill, A. W. (Eds.). (1976). Vandalism
and outdoor recreation: Symposium proceedings. Berkeley, CA:
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station.
American Institute of Research. (1980). The link between crime
and the built environment: Vol. 1- The current state of knowledge.
Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, LEAA, U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Amir, M. (1971). Patterns in forcible rape. Chicago, IL: University
of Chicago.
Andropogon Associates. (1989). Landscape management and restoration
program for the woodlands of Central Park. Report for Central
Park Administration, New York City.
Angel, S. (1968). Discouraging crime through city planning
(paper No. 75). Berkeley, CA: Center for Planning and Development
Research, University of California at Berkeley.
In this early work the author alludes to the infancy
stage in which the field of CPTED then lay, concluding the paper
by saying, "We have examined some possibilities for environmental
crime prevention through (urban planning). We have tried at
this stage to work out a theoretical structure in which this
type of crime prevention can be made possible. There has been
at this point no serious attempt to face the difficulties of
implementation of these proposals.....I have taken the position
of advocate planner in suggesting possible modifications....to
meet particular needs for safety." The paper is brief (37
pg.) but includes sketches to illustrate proposed layouts.
Archea, J. C. (1985). The use of architectural props in the conduct
of criminal acts. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research,
2, 245-259.
Archea, J. C., & Patterson, A. (1985). Crime and the environment:
New perspectives. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research,
2, 227-229.
Ash, M. (1975). Architecture, planning and urban crime. Proceedings
of the National Association for the Care and Resettlement of
Offenders Conference. London, England, UK: NACRO.
Athena, Research Corporation. (1981). Robber interview report.
Presented to the Crime Committee of the Southland Corporation,
June 9, 1991. Dallas, TX.
Atkins, S., Husain, S., & Storey, A. (1991). The influence
of street lighting on crime and fear of crime (Paper 28). London:
Home Office, Crime Prevention Unit.
Responding to the lack of hard data on street lighting's
impact on crime, this work sought to fill the gap by studying
a London borough undergoing relighting, partly to reduce crime.
Working from an immense data set the study found "No evidence...to
support the hypothesis that improved street lighting reduces
reported crime....[a]lthough some areas and some crime types
did show reductions in night-time crime relative to daylight
control." Additionally, it found "[t]he perceived
safety of women walking alone after dark in the re-lit area was
improved, but few other effects were statistically significant."
Atlas, R., & LeBlanc, W. G. (1994). Environmental barriers
to crime. Ergonomics in Design, 9-16.
Ayoob, M. F. (1992). The truth about self-protection. New York:
Bantam Doubleday.
B
Babs, Y., & Austin,
M. (1989). Neighborhood environmental satisfaction, victimization,
and social participation as determinants of perceived safety.
Environment and Behavior, 21, 763-780.
Bacaioa, M., Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (submitted).
Trees, sense of safety, and preference for outdoor spaces in
urban public housing. Submitted to Environment and Behavior.
"One hundred residents of Chicago's Robert Taylor
Homes rated computer simulations of different landscape treatments
of an outdoor space in terms of preference and safety. The simulations
of the space varied in the number of trees, tree arrangement,
subspaces created by the trees, and level of landscape maintenance.
Results indicate that-contrary to views of the police-outdoor
residential spaces with more trees are seen as significantly
more attractive, more safe, and more likely to be used than similar
spaces without trees. Implications for design and policy are
discussed."
Baldwin, J., & Bottoms, A. (1976). The urban criminals: A
study in Sheffield. London: Tavistock Institute of Human Relations.
Barr, R., & Pease, K. (1990). Crime placement, displacement
and deflection. In M. Tonry and N. Norris (Eds.), Crime and justice:
A review of research, 12. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Barr, R., & Pease, K. (1992). A place for every crime and
every crime in its place: An alternative perspective on crime
displacement. In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe and D. T. Herbert (Eds.),
Crime, policing and place: Essays in environmental criminology
(pp. 196-216). New York: Routledge.
Baumer, T. L. (1978). Research on fear of crime in the United
States. Victimology, 3: 254-264.
Baumer, T. L. (1985). Testing a general model for fear of crime:
Data from a national sample. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 22, 239-255.
Beavon, D. (1984). Crime and the environmental opportunity structure:
The influence of street networks on the patterning of property
offenses. Unpublished masters' thesis, British Columbia: Simon
Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
Bechtel, R. B. (1978). Undermanning theory and crime. Crime Prevention
Through Environmental Design Theory Compendium. Arlington, VA:
Westinghouse National Issues Center.
Belan, J. (1991, July). Safety and security in High Park, Toronto.
Landscape Architectural Review, 19-21.
Bell, J., & Burke, B. (1992). Cruising Cooper Street. In
R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime prevention: Successful
case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Bell, M. M., & Bell, M. M. (1987). Crime control: Deterrence
and target hardening. In E. H. Johnson (Ed.), Handbook on crime
and delinquency prevention (pp. 45-68). NY: Greenwood Press.
Bengtsson, A. (1970). Environmental planning for children's play.
New York: Praeger.
Bennett, D. (1996). The geometry of an inner city park. Landscape
Architect & Specifier News, 12, 32-36.
Bennett, J. W. (1969). Vandals wild. Portland, OR: Bennett
Publishing,
"The purpose of Vandals Wild is to help create better
understanding of the outdoors, to create concern about the worsening
behavior problems,to show what is happening in our forests, waters
and beaches (p. iii)." The authors is, as the work's title
implies, talking about the impacts of vandalism. He goes on
to discuss how it "kills" even inanimate objects in
parks, discussing costs, causes, types and actions in the process.
Bennett, T. (1989).Burglars' choice of targets. In D.
Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of crime. New York:
Routledge.
In this chapter the author explains the "situational approach"
to studies of offending determinants, reviewing research methods
and sampling techniques (including video-tape and interview method).
The study discussed dealt with the concept of "risk, reward,
and ease of entry" as perceived by burglars. The study
found that decision to offend or not to offend was more influenced
by risk (of being caught) cues than by reward or ease of entry
cues. These findings are supported by a great deal of accumulated
research.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1983a). Constraints and inducements
to crime: The property offender's perspective. Cambridge, England:
University of Cambridge, Institute of Criminology.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1983b). Offenders' perception
of targets, Home Office Research Bulletin, 15, 18-20. London:
H.M.S.O.
This paper briefly discusses methods and findings in using
past offenders as subjects in studying situational crime prevention.
It is one of the first such attempts, and the authors are well
known now for their ongoing use of so-called "direct methods
of investigation." Included are reviews of both photograph
and videotape methods.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1984a). Constraints to burglary:
The offender's perspective. In R. Clarke & T. Hope (Eds.),
Coping with burglary. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Bennett, T., & Wright, R. (1984b). Burglars on burglary:
Prevention and the offender. Aldershot, England: Gower.
Bevis, C., & Nutter, J. B. (1977). Changing street layouts
to reduce residential burglary. Atlanta: Paper presented at the
American Society of Criminology Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA.
Awarded the 1st Prize at the Society's '77 Student Competition,
this study found that dead end, cul-de-sac and L-type blocks
experienced lower rates of crime than did through streets or
t-type blocks (also submitted to Governor's Commission of Crime
Prevention and Control, St. Paul, MN).
Beyleveld, D. (1979). Identifying, explaining and predicting
deterrence. British Journal of Criminology, 19, 205-224.
Beyleveld, D. (1980). A bibliography on general deterrence research.
Farnborough, UK: Saxon House.
Blazicek, D. (1985). Patterns of victim selection among robbers:
A theoretical and descriptive analysis. Paper presented at the
Fifth International Symposium on Victimology, Zagreg, Yugoslavia.
Block, R. (1977a). Community, environment, and violent crime.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Panel. Atlanta,
GA: American Society of Criminology.
Block, R. (1977b). Violent crime, environment, interaction and
death. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
Block, C. R. (1994). STAC hot spot areas: A statistical tool
for law enforcement decisions. D. Zahm & P. Cromwell (Eds.),
Proceedings of the International Seminar on Environmental Criminology
and Crime Analysis (pp. 61-75). Coral Gables, FL: Florida Statistical
Analysis Center, Florida Criminal Justice Executive Institute.
Boggs, S. (1966). Urban crime patterns. American Sociological
Review, 30, 899-908.
Boggs, S. (1971). Formal and informal crime control. Sociological
Quarterly, 12, 319-327.
Bolden, C. M., & Sharitz, C. J. (1983). Security. In Dimensions
of parking, pp. 105-108. Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute
and National Parking Association.
Booth, A. (1981). The built environment as a crime deterrent:
A reexamination of defensible space. Criminology, 18, 557-570.
Bottom, N. (1988). The parking lot and garage security handbook.
Columbia, MD: Hanrow Press.
Bottoms, A. E., & Wiles, P. (1992). Explanations of crime
and place. In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe and D. T. Herbert (Eds.),
Crime, policing and place: Essays in environmental criminology
(pp. 11-35). New York: Routledge.
Bouza, A. V. (1995, September). Trees and crime prevention.
Proceedings of the Seventh National Urban Forest Conference (pp.
31-32). New York, NY: American Forests.
The author reflects on his years in the New York City
Police Department, and his efforts to incorporate trees into
the streets of Harlem and the Bronx, as well as other efforts
of early "community policing" such as transforming
empty lots into community gardens, cleaning trash from the Bronx
River, as well as other projects. The most interesting aspect
of this brief retrospective is how thoroughly the author's personal
love of forests affected his service to the people within his
watch.
Box, S., Hale, C., & Andrews, G. (1988). Explaining fear
of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 28, 340-356.
Brantingham, P., & Brantingham, P. (1975b). The spatial patterning
of burglary. Howard Journal, 14, 11-23.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1977). Housing
patterns and burglary in a medium-sized American city. In J.
Scott & S. Dinitz (Eds.), Criminal justice planning (pp.
63-74). New York: Praeger.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1978). A theoretical
model of crime site selection. In M. D. Kohn & R. L. Aders
(Eds.), Crime, law and sanctions: Theoretical perspectives (pp.
105-118). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (Eds.). (1981a).
Environmental criminology. Beverly Hills: Sage.
According to the authors, a crime takes place when all
of the essential elements are present. These elements consist
of: a law, an offender, a target, and a place. They characterize
these as "the four dimensions of crime", with Environmental
criminology studying the last of the four dimensions. This
important book chronicles the subject from its inceptions through
the '80s., discussing research, major areas of study . Chapters
are written by such authors as Brown & Altman, Wood, Mayhew
and Mawby.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1981b). Notes on
the geometry of crime. In P.J. Brantingham & P.L. Brantingham
(Eds.), Environmental criminology (pp. 27-54). Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1984a). Burglar
mobility and crime prevention planning. In R. Clarke & T.
Hope (Eds.), Coping with burglary (pp. 77-95). Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1984b). Patterns
in crime. New York: Macmillan.
Brantingham, P. L. (1989). Crime prevention: The North American
experience. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography
of crime. New York: Routledge.
In this thorough and insightful chapter the author chronicles
the conception, conceptual models of, and changes to crime prevention
on this continent. In calling for further theoretical and applied
research, she concludes that of the two levels at which prevention
is proceeding-standardized programmes versus those specific to
a socio-geographic environment-"...standardized programming
is unlikely to work..." thus more investigation is needed
in the latter area.
Brantingham, P. L., & Brantingham, P. J. (1975a). Residential
burglary and urban form. Urban Studies, 12, 273-284.
Brantingham, P. L., & Brantingham, P. J. (1993). Nodes,
paths, and edges: Considerations on the complexity of crime and
the physical environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology,
13, 53-28.
This paper is extremely useful for the reader wishing
an understanding of the past two decades of research on the relationship
between crime and the physical environment. Over 200 works are
cited in the process of discussing the field's progress and status.
The authors utilize a theoretical framework to describe the
range of studies conducted on the subject. This includes: 1)
the complex etiology of crime; 2) the crime patterns of individuals,
with particular attention to how the physical environment influences
their behavior; 3) aggregate crime patterns, with particular
attention to how the physical environment influences them. Also
introduced are the concepts of nodes, paths, edges and an 'environmental
backcloth'. The authors close with a discussion of general directions
research should take from this point. They note the uniquely
well developed understanding of burglary and suggest that research
in other areas is needed to bring them up to similar levels.
In particular they bring up the need for investigation of cognitive
mappings pointing out that "the cognitive physical and spatial
environment does not exist independently of the cognitive, social,
cultural, economic, legal and temporal environment."
Brantingham, P. J., Brantingham, P. L., & Butcher, D. (1986).
Perceived and actual crime risks. In P. Figlio, S. Hakim &
G. Rengert (Eds.), Metropolitan crime patterns (139-160). New
York: Criminal Justice Press.
Brantingham, P. J., Brantingham, P. L., & Molumby, T. (1977).
Perceptions of crime in a dreadful enclosure. Ohio Journal of
Science, 77, 256-261.
Brantingham, P. J., Dyreson, D. A., & Brantingham, P. L.
(1976). Crime seen through a cone of resolution. American Behavioral
Scientist, 20, 261-273.
Brantingham, P. J., & Faust, F. L. (1976). A conceptual model
of crime prevention. Crime and Delinquency, 22, 284-296.
Brill, W. H. (1972). Security in public housing: A synergistic
approach. In Deterrence of Crime in and Around Residences: Papers
presented at the Fourth National Symposium on Law Enforcement
Science and Technology. College Park, MD: University of Maryland.
Brill & Associates. (1976). Victimization, fear of crime,
and altered behavior: A profile of the crime problems in William
Nickerson Jr. Gardens, Los Angeles, CA. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development.
This report is one of a series on 'Victimization, Fear
of Crime, and Altered Behavior' in public housing projects.
The reports aim at gathering statistical information to be used
for comprehensive security plans at the projects. One section
deals with building design and location of crimes committed.*
Brooks, J. (1974). The fear of crime in the United States. Crime
and Delinquency, 20, 241-244.
Brower, S. (1980). Territory in urban settings. In I. Altman
et al. (Eds.), Human Behavior in the Environment: Advances in
Theory and Research, Vol. 4. New York: Plenum.
Brower, S., Dockett, K., & Taylor, R. (1983). Residents'
perceptions of territorial features and perceived local threat.
Environment and Behavior, 15, 419-437.
Responses to varying images of defensible space features
and territorial signs were measured utilizing line drawings with
variations in key features. "Results supported the following
hypotheses: (1) that the presence of real barriers and plantings
are interpreted as a deterrent to intrusion and an indication
of stronger occupant territorial attitudes, and (2) that as local
perceived threat increases, territorial displays are viewed as
less effective deterrents to intrusion.
Brown, B. B. (1983). Territoriality, street form, and residential
burglary: Social and environmental analyses (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Utah, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International,
44, 357B.
Brown, B. B. (1985). Residential territories: Cues to burglary
vulnerability. Journal of Architecture and Planning Research,
2, 231-243.
This paper uses "Newman's work on defensible space
and Altman's work on territoriality to formulate a hypothesis
that certain design elements enhance or reflect residential territoriality
and thereby influence burglar's target selections. Specifically,
evidence on the links from real and symbolic barriers, traces,
and detectability features to burglary vulnerability and residential
territoriality are reviewed." The review of relevant literature
is effective and useful.
Brown, B. B. (1987). Territoriality. In D. Stokols & I. Altman
(Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology, 3 (pp. 505-531).
Brown, B. B., & Altman, I. (1981a). Territoriality and residential
crime: A conceptual framework. In P. Brantingham & P. Brantingham
(Eds.), Environmental criminology (pp. 55-76). Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage Publications.
Brown, B. B., & Altman, I. (1983). Territoriality, defensible
space and residential burglary: An environmental analysis. Journal
of Environmental Psychology, 3, 203-220.
With this study the focus of burglary prevention was heading
towards use of cues. It was developing territoriality theories
to great detail. The weaknesses the authors experienced, however,
appear to have led to studies employing burglars. In that way
researchers were able to overcome much of the guesswork which
was otherwise necessary to determine decision making by criminals.
Brown, B. B., & Bentley, D. L. (1993). Residential burglars
judge risk: The role of territoriality. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 13, 51-61.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1988a). Criminal victimization
in the United States, 1986. National Crime Survey Report. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1988b). Criminal victimization,
1987. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1992). Criminal victimization
in the United States, 1992. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice.
Burgess, J. (in progress). Perceptions of risk in recreational
woodlands in the urban fringe. London, UK: Countryside Commission.
The extensive work examines recreation users' perceptions
of risk in "well-wooded landscapes on the fringes of towns
and cities" in the United Kingdom. It evolved out of an
effort to increase and broaden the patronage of these settings.
As a potential deterrent to usage, perceptions of risk were
examined from a number of perspectives, including: kinds of perceived
risks, extent to which perceptions of risk inhibit use, and strategies
recommended for reducing perceptions of risk. Also included
is a thorough review of existing literature. Qualitative methods
(participant observation and focus groups) were employed in an
attempt to improve on the shortcomings of other methods, especially
rating of photographs. Data collection was completed between
January and May of 1993, at two urban fringe sites. Noteworthy
findings include those concerning "enclosure", "entrapment",
and isolation. Addressed are specific impacts of these factors
on patrons' perceptions of risk and their use of woodlands.
Gender differences are addressed, as are recommendations relevant
to environmental designers and resource managers.
Burgess, J., Harrison, C. M., & Limb, M. (1988). People,
parks and the urban green: A study of popular meanings and values
for open spaces in the city. Urban Studies, 25, 455-473.
Bynum, T. S, & Purri, D. M. (1984). Crime and architectural
style: An examination of the environmental design hypothesis.
Criminal Justice and Behavior, 11, 179-196.
Historically, social scientists have argued that human
behavior is, to a large degree, a response to environmental conditions.
Recently, a group of criminologists posited a direct relationship
between certain environmental structures and reported crime rates.
Studies exploring this area have pointed to the association
between crime rates and high rise residences as support for their
position....Using victimization techniques, the experiences of
residents of several high and low rise structures in a traditionally
low crime area such as the college campus were investigated.....Although
causality can not be inferred from the findings, a positive association
was observed between high rise areas and property crime rates.*
C
Campbell, F., Hendee,
J., & Clarke, R. (1979). Law and order in public parks. Park
and Recreation, 6, 35-36.
Canter, D., & Larkin, P. (1993). The environmental range
of serial rapists. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 63-69.
This article at first seems more appropriate for aiding in
the solving of crimes, however the application to deterrence
is apparent. The authors, after studying 45 sexual offenders'
spatial activity, found support for the 'domocentricity' theory,
as well as the Marauder and Circle-and-Range hypotheses, while
the Commuter model found no support. This suggests that offenders
range out from a central point; their homes. This concentration
of their offenses seems to offer support for the 'hot spot' theory.
If offenders tend to reside in patterns other than purely random
manners, then the possibility of non-random offense patterns
would mean overall crime rates would be greater in and around
their spatial range.
Capone, D. L., & Nichols, W. W. (1975). Crime and distance:
An analysis of offender behavior in space. Proceedings of the
Association of American Geographers, 7 (pp. 45-49).
Capone, D. L., & Nichols, W. W. (1976). Urban structure and
criminal mobility. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 199-213.
Carpenter, C., Glassner, B., Johnson, B. D., & Loughlin,
J. (1988). Kids, drugs, and crime. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Carroll, J. (1982). Committing a crime: The offender's decision.
In V. Konecni & E. Ebbesen (Eds.), The criminal justice system:
A social-psychological analysis. New York: Freeman.
Carroll, J., & Payne, J. (1978). A psychological approach
to deterrence: The evaluation of criminal opportunities. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1512-1520.
Carter, R. L., & Hill, K. Q. (1979). The criminal's image
of the city. New York: Pergaman.
Carter, R. L., & Hill, K. Q. (1980). Area-images and behavior:
An alternative perspective for understanding urban crime. In
D. Georges-Abeyie & K. Harries (Eds.), Crime: A Spatial Perspective
(pp. 193-204). New York: Columbia University Press.
Catallo, R. (1994). Lessons from success stories. Toronto, Ontario:
Safe City Committee, Planning and Development Department.
Chaiken, J., & Chaiken, M. (1982). Varieties of criminal
behavior. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
Chapin, D. (1991, July). Making green spaces safer places: Experiences
in New York City. Landscape Architectural Review, 16- 18.
Charland, J. (1988). Women's personal security, fear of crime,
and the urban environment. Unpublished master's major paper,
Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
Chenoweth, R. E. (1978). The effects of territorial markings
on residents of two multi-family housing developments: A partial
test of Newman's theory of defensible space (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Illinois, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International,
38, 5088. (University Microfilms No. GAX78-03955).
Chimbos, P. (1973). A study of breaking and entering offenses
in Northern City, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Criminology and
Corrections, 15, 316-325.
Christensen, H. H. & Clark, R. N. (1978). Understanding and
controlling vandalism and other rule violations in urban recreation
areas. Proceedings of the National Urban Forest Conference, 1.
Washington, DC.
Christensen, H. H., Johnson, D. R., & Brooks, M. H. (1992).
Vandalism: Research, prevention and social policy (General Technical
Report PNW-GTR-293). Portland, OR: U.S. Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station.
Chubb, M., & Westover, T. (1981). Anti-social behavior: Typology,
messages and implications for recreation resource managers. Land
use allocation. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North Central
Experiment Station.
Cimler, E., & Beach, L. (1981). Factors involved in juveniles'
decisions about crime. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 8, 275-286.
Citizens Task Force. (March, 1990). Central Park: The heart
of the city. New York: Citizens Task Force on the Use and Security
of Central Park.
This report is a compilation of a research study conducted
to improve understanding of use and security in New York's Central
Park. Notable findings include: the northern end of the park
is perceived to be the most unsafe; crime within the park is
noticeably lower than in surrounding neighborhoods; there are
relatively few police assigned to the expanse of the Park; crime
in the Park is perceived to be worse than it is; community policing
has been highly effective (including assigning radios to vendors,
and Interwatch radios to runners). Recommendations are broad
and specific, yet pertain primarily to policing, user awareness
and technologically oriented means for crime detection, with
some crime deterrence. Although terrain and vegetation are mentioned
as significant influences on perceptions of safety and actual
crime, recommendations are few for dealing with these elements.
Most notably, undergrowth and dead trees were cited for removal,
and sight lines were recommended to be kept clear.
Clarke, A., & Lewis, M. (1982). Fear of crime among the elderly.
British Journal of Criminology, 22, 49-62.
Clarke, R. V. (1980a). Situational crime prevention: Theory and
practice. British Journal of Criminology, 20, 136-147.
Clarke, R. V. (1980b). Situational crime prevention: Its theory
basis and practical scope. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.),
Crime and justice: An annual review of research, 4. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. V. (1992). Situational crime prevention: Successful
case studies. New York: Harrow and Heston.
Clarke, R. V., & Mayhew, P. (1992). Parking patterns and
car theft risks: Policy-relevant findings from the British Crime
Survey. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies: Vol.
3 (pp. 91-107). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Cornish, D. (1985). Modeling offenders'
decisions: A framework for research and policy. In M. Tonry &
N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research,
6. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, R. V., & Hope, T. (Eds.). (1984). Coping with burglary.
Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Clarke, R. V., & Mayhew, P. (Eds.). (1980). Designing
out crime. London: H.M.S.O.
A series of excellent articles on reducing crime and vandalism
by improving design and management of the environment in order
to reduce opportunities for offending. This is a 'situational'
approach to crime prevention and includes discussions of lock
technology, surveillance, siting, and publicity campaigns
Claster, D. (1967). Comparison of risk perception between delinquents
and non-delinquents. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and
Police Science, 58: 80-86.
Cohen, J. (1983). Incapacitation as a strategy for crime control:
Possibilities and pitfalls. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.),
Crime and justice: An annual review of research, 5. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Cohen, L. E., & Cantor, D. (1981). Residential burglary in
the United States: Lifestyles and demographic factors associated
with the probability. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,
18, 113-127.
Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime
rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological
Review, 44: 588-608.
Conklin, J. (1971). Dimensions of community response to the crime
problem. Social Problems, 18, 373-385.
Conklin, J. (1975). The impact of crime. New York: Macmillan.
Conklin, J., & Bittner, E. (1973). Burglary in a suburb.
Criminology, 11, 206-231.
Conners, E. F. (1976) Public safety in park and recreation settings.
Parks and Recreation, 2 (1), 20-21, 55-56.
Conway, K. L. (1980). Public perceptions of, and attitudes toward,
crime in the parks of a major metropolitan area. Unpublished
masters' thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station.
Cook, P. (1980). Research in criminal deterrence: Laying the
groundwork for the second decade. In N. Morris & M. Tonry
(Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research, 2.
Chicago: University of Chicago.
Cook, P. (1986). The demand and supply of criminal opportunities.
In N. Morris & M. Tonry (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual
review of research, 7. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Cooper-Marcus, C., & Sarkissian, W. (1986). Housing as
if people mattered: Site guidelines for medium-density family
housing. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
This highly readable book covers a variety of user groups
and site design issues in housing developments. Chapter 13,
Security and Vandalism, deals exclusively with crime in such
developments, providing a rare variety of useful sketches and
photographs to illustrate the text. Design guidelines extensively
reference past research on the crime and housing and themselves
offer suggestions which appear to the reader as simple yet valuable.
Included are major subject headings are Penetrability, Territoriality,
Opportunities for Surveillance, Ambiguity, Resident Conflicts,
Vandalism, and Management.
Cornish, D. B. (1994). Crimes as scripts. D. Zahm & P. Cromwell
(Eds.), Proceedings of the International Seminar on Environmental
Criminology and Crime Analysis (pp. 30-45). Coral Gables, FL:
Florida Statistical Analysis Center, Florida Criminal Justice
Executive Institute.
Cornish, D. B. (1994). The procedural analysis of offending and
its relevance for situational prevention. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.),
Crime Prevention Studies: Vol. 3 (pp. 91-107). Monsey, NY: Criminal
Justice Press.
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (Eds.). (1986). The reasoning
criminal: Rational choice perspective on offending. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Cornish, D. B., & Clarke, R. V. (1987). Understanding crime
displacement: An application of rational choice theory. Criminology,
25, 933-947.
Covington, J., & Taylor, R. B. (1990). Neighborhood structure,
neighborhood change, and fear of crime (Working Paper 19). Piscataway,
NJ: Rutgers University, Center for Urban Policy Research.
Cranz, G. (1980). Women in urban parks. Signs: Journal of Women
in Culture and Society, 5, 579-595.
Creechan, J., Hartnagel, T., & Silverman, R. (1978). Attitudes
toward crime and law enforcement. Unpublished manuscript.
Cromwell, P., Olson, J., & Avary, D. (1991). Breaking and
entering: An ethnographic analysis of burglary. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Crowe, T. D. (1988). An ounce of prevention: A new role for
law enforcement. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 57, 18-24.
Written by then director of the National Crime Prevention
Institute, this audiences-specific article gives a quick introduction
to the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
concept. It discusses the principals of CPTED and explains via
easily legible plan drawings examples of good and bad design.
Crowe, T. D. (1990, Fall). Designing safer schools. School Safety,.
pp. 9-13.
Crowe, T. D. (1991). Crime prevention through environmental design.
Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Cunnen, J. M. L. (1990). The light solution to crime: Lighting
makes life secure. Lighting Design and Application, 20, 16-17+.
Cunningham, W. C., Strauchs, J. J., & Van Meter, C. W. (1991).
Private security: Patterns and trends. Research in Brief. Washington,
DC: National Institute of Justice.
D
Davidson, R. N.
(1981). Crime and environment. London: Croom Helm.
This work
offers "no blockbusting theory" on crime and the environment,
but it does deal with spatial elements of crime patterns. The
book repeatedly examines the theme of "spatial inequalities
in patterns." The author's primary emphasis is upon offenses
against persons and their property.
Davidson, R. N. (1982). Micro-environments of violence: Situational
factors in violent crime. Paper presented at IBG Crime and Space
Conference, London.
Davidson, R. N. (1986). Micro-environments of assault: The role
of location in violent injury. In D. Herbert, D. Evans, R. Davidson,
S. Smith, & R. Mawby (Eds.), The geography of crime (Occasional
Paper 7, pp. 24-32). UK: North Staffordshire Polytechnic, Department
of Geography and Recreation Studies.
Davidson, R. N., & Locke, T. (1992). Local area profiles
of crime: Neighborhood crime patterns in context. In D. J. Evans,
N. R. Fyfe and D. T. Herbert (Eds.), Crime, policing and place:
Essays in environmental criminology (pp. 60-72). New York: Routledge.
Day, K. (1995, March). Making the solution fit the crime. Sexual
assault prevention and women's use of the college campus. Paper
presented at EDRA 26, Boston, MA.
Decker, S. H., Wright, R., & Logie, R. H. (1993). Perceptual
deterrence among active residential burglars: A research note.
Criminology, 31, 135-147.
The authors, two of whom are well known for their work
with active and former offenders, here brief the reader on their
findings comparing responses by active criminals and a non-criminal
control group. The willingness to offend findings are important
and not altogether expected, but most importantly they point
out that "when studying perceptual deterrence in relation
to serious offenses such as residential burglary, it is important
to include real criminals."
DeFrances, C. J., & Titus, R. M. (1993). Urban planning and
residential burglary outcomes. In J. L. Nasar (Ed.), Landscape
and urban planning: Special issue on urban design research, 26,
179-191.
Dietrick, B. (1977). The environment and burglary victimization
in a metropolitan suburb. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting
of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, GA.
Donnely, P. (1988). Individual and neighborhood influences on
fear of crime. Sociological Focus, 22, 69-85.
Dowell, C. D. (1973, January). Panic in the parks. Parks and
Recreation.
DuBow, F. E., McCabe, E., & Kaplan, G. (1979). Reactions
to crime: A critical review of the literature. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration,
National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice.
Duffala, D. C. (1976). Convenience stores, robbery, and physical
environmental features. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 227-246.
Dunlap, E., Johnson, B., Sanabria, H., Holliday, E., Lipsey,
V., Barnett, M., Hopkins, W., Sobel, I., Randolph, D., &
Chin, K. (1990). Studying crack users and their criminal careers:
The scientific and artistic aspects of locating hard-to-reach
subjects and interviewing them about sensitive topics. Contemporary
Drug Problems, 17, 121-144.
Dunn, C. S. (1980a). Crime area research. In D. E. Georges-Abeyie
and K. D. Harries (Eds.), Crime: A spatial perspective. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Dunn, C. S. (1980b). Social area structure of suburban crime.
In D. E. Georges-Abeyie and K. D. Harries (Eds.), Crime: A spatial
perspective (pp. 136-137). New York: Columbia University Press.
Dwyer, W. O., & Murrell, D. S. (1985, January). Negligence
in visitor security. Parks and Recreation.
Dwyer, W. O., & Murrell, D. S. (1986, February). Future trends
in park protection. Parks and Recreation.
Dwyer, W. O., & Murrell, D. S. (1990, February). The ins
and outs of park law enforcement. Parks and Recreation.
E
Eck, J. (1983). Solving
crimes: The invention of burglary and robbery. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Justice.
Eck, J., Spelman, W. (1992). Thefts from vehicles in shipyard
parking lots. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime prevention:
Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Egan, J. (1991, July). Breaking through the myth of public safety.
Landscape Architectural Review, 7-10.
Ehrenhard, J. E. (Ed.). (1991). Coping with site looting: Southeastern
perspectives: Essays in archeological resource protection. Atlanta,
GA: National Park Service, Southeast Region, Interagency Archeological
Services Division.
Engstad, P. (1975). Environmental opportunities and the ecology
of crime. In R. Silverman & J. Teevan, Jr. (Eds.), Crime
in Canadian society (193-211). Toronto: Butterworth.
Ennis, P. (1967). Criminal victimization in the United States.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Erez, E. (1979). Situational analysis of crime: Comparison of
planned and impulsive offenses. (Doctoral dissertation). London:
University Microfilms International.
Erskine, H. (1974). The polls: Fear of violence and crime. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 38, 131-148.
Eskridge, C. (1983). Prediction of burglary. Journal of Criminal
Justice, 11, 67-76.
Estrella, S. (1988). Stemming crime through environmental
design. Security Management, 32, 86-89.
This two page article serves to introduce readers of this
magazine (security managers) to the origination and development
of CPTED (crime prevention through environmental design), and
how they may incorporate it into their businesses. While it
is neither empirical nor innovative, it does offer a quality,
albeit very brief, discussion of the topic.
Evans, D. J. (1987). Burglary within an affluent housing area.
Unpublished research note.
Evans, D. J. (1989). Geographical analyses of residential burglary.
In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography of crime.
New York: Routledge.
Evans, D. J., Fyfe, N. R., & Herbert, D. T. (1992). Crime,
policing and place: Essays in environmental criminology. New
York: Routledge.
Evans, D. J., & Herbert, D. T. (Eds.). (1989). The geography
of crime. New York: Routledge.
Evans, D. J., & Oulds, G. (1984). Geographical aspects of
the incidence of residential burglary in Newcastle-under-Lyme,
UK. TESG, 75, 344-355.
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Federal Bureau of
Investigation. (1980). Crime in the United States. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Feeney, F. (1986). Robbers as decision-makers. In D. Cornish
& R. V. Clarke (Eds.), The reasoning criminal (pp. 53-71).
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Feeney, F., & Weir, A. (Eds.). (1973a). The prevention
and control of robbery: The response of the police and other
agencies to robbery, IV. Davis, CA: University of California.
This is the fourth of a four volume series of which this
is the most relevant to the topic at hand. The studies contained
in this volume seek to explain the criminal justice system's
operation regarding robbery. Underlying this purpose was the
goal of understanding the system's relevance to the problems
of controlling and preventing robbery.
Feeney, F., & Weir, A. (Eds.). (1973b). The prevention
and control of robbery: Summary. Davis, CA: University of California.
"This study has primarily been concerned with describing
the patterns of robbery in a single American city--Oakland, California--and
the response of the criminal justice agencies in that city to
the crime. It is an exploratory study designed to produce the
kind of detailed, integrated information necessary for serious
thinking and planning about the subject....The findings of the
study do...bring to light some important things that have been
unknown or little understood (pp. 3-4)."
Feldman, M. (1977). Criminal behavior: A psychological analysis.
New York: Wiley.
Felson, M. (1983). The ecology of crime. In Encyclopedia of Crime
and Justice. New York: Free Press-Macmillan.
Felson, M. (1986). Predicting crime potential at any point on
the city map. In P. Figlio, S. Hakim, & G. Rengert (Eds.),
Metropolitan crime patterns (139-160). New York: Criminal Justice
Press.
Felson, M. (1987). Routine activities and crime prevention
in the developing metropolis. Criminology, 25, 911-931.
Not an empirical study, this paper offers a discussion
of research on routine activities theory. Specifically, it
addresses changes in the urban fabric and how those evolving
relationships affect crime. The author focuses on streets and
their impact on lifestyles and hence on contact between offenders
and the public, referring to these meetings as "systematic
accidents". He also introduces the term "sociocirculatory
system", a reference to the latter impact of streets and
vehicles on society, and especially the lack of regular neighborhood
contact and the familiarity with people and place that results.
Several excellent examples are given where these changes have
occurred. The "facility" is the social structure which
he suggests is the outcome. Examples include industrial parks,
mini-malls, and so-called smart office buildings. In the long
term the author suggests that the switch in urban structure means
"the facility would become the main organizational tool
for crime prevention (p. 926)." Finally, he offers the
designer as one of the most important emerging preventers of
crime as the "physical design and kinetic management"
of urban landscapes decides more and more how and how often criminal
and target meet.
Felson, M., & Cohen, L. (1980). Human ecology and crime:
A routine activity approach. Human Ecology, 8, 389-406.
Figlio, P.,. Hakim, S., & Rengert, G. (Eds.). (1986). Metropolitan
crime patterns. New York: Criminal Justice Press.
Fisher, B. S. (in press). Neighborhood business proprietors'
reactions to crime. Journal of Security Administration.
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1991, July). Prospect and
refuge: Fear of crime in and the building design characteristics.
Paper presented at the Joint ASCP and ASEOP International Conference,
Oxford, England.
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1992). Fear of crime in
relation to three exterior site features: Prospect, refuge, and
escape. Environment and Behavior, 24, 35-65.
"This article examines fear of crime in relation
to exterior site features...The authors propose and test a theoretical
model that posits that places that afford offenders refuge, and
victims limited prospect and escape, will be seen as unsafe...The
findings confirmed that fear of crime was highest in areas with
refuge for potential offenders and low prospect and escape for
potential victims."
Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1995). Fear spots in relation
to microlevel physical cues: Exploring the overlooked. Journal
of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 32, 214-239.
Fleming, R., & Burrows, J. (1986). The case for lighting
as a means of preventing crime. Home Office Research Bulletin,
22, 14-17. London: H.M.S.O.
Fletcher, J. E. (1983a). The estimated effect of user fees and
controlled visitor access in reducing actual and perceived safety
and security problems at Sommerville Lake, Texas. Vicksburg,
MS: U.S. Department of the Defense, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station.
Fletcher, J. E. (1983b). Assessing the impact of actual and perceived
safety and security problems on park use and enjoyment. Journal
of Park and Recreation Administration, 1, 21-36.
Fletcher, J. E. (1984). Effect of controlled access and entrance
fees on park visitor safety and security. Journal of Park and
Recreation Administration, 2.
Florida Center for Community Design & Research. (1993). Safe
schools design guidelines: Recommendations for a safe & secure
environment in Florida's public schools (Project No. 4950-33-10-056-LO).
Fowler, F., & Mangione, T. (1979). Reducing residential crime
and fear: The Hartford neighborhood prevention program. Boston,
MA: Center for Survey Research, The University of Massachusetts,
Boston, the Joint Center for Urban Studies of MIT and Harvard
University, and Hartford Institute of Criminal and Social Justice.
Fowler, F., & Mangione, T. (1982). Neighborhood crime, fear,
and social control: A second look at the Hartford Program. Washington,
DC: Center for Survey Research.
Fowler, F., & Mangione, T. (1986). A three-pronged effort
to reduce crime and fear of crime: The Hartford experiment. In
D. Rosenbaum (Ed.), Community crime prevention: Does it work?.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Francis, M. (1984). Some different meanings attached to a city
park and community gardens. Landscape Journal, 101-112.
Furstenberg, F. (1971). Public reaction to crime in the streets.
The American Scholar, 40, 601-610.
G
Gabor, T. (1981).
The crime displacement hypothesis: An empirical examination.
Crime and Delinquency, 27, 390-404.
Gardiner, R. A. (1978). Design for safe neighborhoods: The
environmental security planning and design process. Washington,
DC: National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice.
This manual describes the concept of 'environmental security',
a comprehensive planning process for analyzing and understanding
neighborhood crime problems. The manual emphasizes a preventative
orientation to crime, utilizing physically and socially 'reinforcing'
solutions.*
Garofalo, J. (1977a). Public opinion about crime: The attitudes
of victims and nonvictims in selected cities. Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Garofalo, J. (1977b). Victimization and the fear of crime in
major cities. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
American Association for Public Opinion Research, Buck Hill Falls,
PA.
Garofalo, J. (1979). Victimization and the fear of crime. Journal
of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16, 80-97.
Gates, L., & Rohe, W. (1987). Fear and reactions to crime.
A revised model. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 22, 425-453.
Geason, S., & Wilson, P. R. (1989). Designing out crime:
Crime prevention through environmental design. Canberra, Australia:
Australian Institute of Criminology.
Georges-Abeyie, D. E., & Harries, K. D. (Eds.). (1980). Crime:
A spatial perspective. New York: Columbia University Press.
Gibbs, J., & Shelly, P. (1982). Life in the fast lane: A
retrospective view by commercial thieves. Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency, 19, 299-330.
Gimblett, H. R., Itami, R. M., & Fitzgibbon, J. E. (1985).
Mystery in an information processing model of landscape preference.
Landscape Journal, 4, 87-95.
Gobster, P. H. (1993). Managing urban open spaces for naturalness:
Preferences of Chicago Housing Authority children. G. A. Vander
Stoep (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1993 Northeastern Recreation
Research Symposium (pp. 64-67). Radnor, PA: US Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.
Godbey, G., Patterson, A., & Brown, L. (1979). The relationship
of crime and fear of crime among the elderly to leisure behavior
and use of public leisure services. Washington, DC: American
Association of Retired Persons.
An extensive study by several of the leaders in elderly/crime
studies. "This study examined crime and fear of crime among
the elderly residing in urban areas in regard to its effect upon
their leisure and use of public recreation and park services.
The study also sought techniques useful in minimizing such crime
and fear of crimeFear of crime was found to be pervasive among
the population surveyed and victims were particularly fearful.
Nine percent of all those surveyed reported being the victim
of crime during the last year." Approximately 150 pgs.
Godbey, G. (1981). Old people and urban parks: An exploratory
study. Washington, DC: American Association of Retired Persons.
Goffman, E. (1963). Behavior in public places: Notes on social
organization of gathering. New York: Free Press.
Gold, S. M. (1969). A concept for outdoor recreation planning
in the inner city. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Gold, S. M. (1970). Urban violence and contemporary defensive
cities. Journal of American Institute of Planners, 36, 146-159.
Gold, S. M. (1972). Nonuse of neighborhood parks. Journal
of the American Institute of Planners, 38, 369-378.
Somewhat dated, this article discusses various implications/causes
of park non-use, including personal safety. Causes of non-use
presented include: Social Restraints, Access, Site Characteristics
and Personal Safety. The author discusses implications and offers
possible solutions to the problems discussed. This work may
be of more use for gaining a perspective on how the field has
progressed than for realizing new ideas.
Goldberg, F., & MIchelson, W. (1978). Defensible space as
a factor in combating fear among the elderly: Evidence from Sherbourne
Lanes. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Theory Compendium.
Arlington, VA: Westinghouse National Issues Center.
Golledge, R. G., & Stimson, R. S. (1997). Spatial behavior
: A geographic perspective. New York : Guilford Press.
Goodman, L. H., Miller, T., & DeForest, P. (1966). A study
of the deterrent value of crime prevention measures as perceived
by criminal offenders. Washington, DC: Bureau of Social Science
Research.
Gordon, M. T., & Riger, S. (1978). The fear of rape project.
Victimology: An International Journal, 3, 346-347.
Gordon, M. T., Riger, S., LeBailly, R., & Health, L. (1981).
Crime, women and the quality of urban life. In C. Simpson (Ed.),
Women and the American city. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Grant, A. (1988). Women and public urban space: Women's freedom
of movement in the City of Toronto. Unpublished master's thesis,
Department of Geography, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Greenberg, S. W. (1986). Fear and its relationship to crime,
neighborhood deterioration and informal social control. In J.
M. Bryne and R. J. Sampson (Eds.), The Social Ecology of Crime
(pp. 47-62). New York: Springer Verlag.
Greenberg, S. W., & Rohe, W. M. (1984). Neighborhood design
and crime: A test of two perspectives. American Planning Association
Journal, 5, 48-61.
(This) paper assesses the validity of two perspectives
on the effect of the physical design of buildings, sites, and
neighborhoods on crime--the defensible space approach and the
opportunity approach. Study examined differences in physical
characteristics and various dimensions of informal social control
within and among three pairs of neighborhoods matched on racial
composition and economic status but with distinctly different
crime levels. Study results lend far more support to opportunity
model of crime in residential areas than to the defensible space
model.*
Greenberg, S. W., Williams, J. R., & Rohe, W. M. (1982).
Safety in urban neighborhoods: A comparison of physical characteristics
and informal territorial control in high and low crime neighborhoods.
Population and Environment, 5, 141-165.
Griswold, D. B. (1992). Crime prevention and commercial burglary:
A time series analysis. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime
prevention: Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Grove, G. R. (1976). Role theory considered as an influence on
criminal and deviant behavior in the Utah State Park system-a
manager problem. Unpublished master's thesis, Utah State University,
Logan.
H
Hagedorn, J. (1990).
Back in the field again: Gang research in the Nineties. In C.
R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hammitt, W. E. (1980). Designing mystery into trail-landscape
experiences. Journal of Interpretation, 5, 16-19.
The author found that high visual preference was found
for trail hikers where scenes in photos showed a trail winding
out of view, but only when dense vegetation obscured the receding
trail. This lack of information is termed 'mystery'. [While
mystery may prove pleasing in some safe settings (such as remote
Cranberry Glades, WV, as in this study), it may make people feel
unsafe in more urban settings.]
Harries, K. D. (1974). The geography of crime and justice. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Harries, K. D. (1980). Crime and the environment. Springfield,
IL: Charles C. Thomas.
"This monograph reviews the environments of criminogenesis
from a broad ecological perspective, emphasizing both human and
physical phenomena. Human environments are examined from both
the macro- and microlevel perspectives...At the micro-, or intraurban,
scale a number of recent studies are examined, their strengths
and weaknesses underlined, and their essential findings synthesized.(vii)"**
Harris, D. W. (1991). A safer city. The second stage report of
the Safe City Committee. Toronto, Ontario: Safe City Committee,
Planning and Development Department.
Harris, J. (1979). Lawless behavior: Are park managers part of
the problem? California Park and Recreation Society, 35, 42-43.
Harris, J., & Brown, P. (1972). Law enforcement in the forest.
Journal of Forestry, 70, 750-751.
Hartnagel, T. F. (1979). The perception and fear of crime:
Implications for neighborhood cohesion, social activity, and
community affect. Social Forces, 58, 176-193.
"This research examines the relationship between
the perception and fear of crime on the one hand and neighborhood
cohesion, social activity and affect for the community on the
other...The hypotheses that the perception of increased crime
and the fear of crime would be inversely related to neighborhood
cohesion and social activity were not supported. But as hypothesized,
the fear of crime was negatively related to affect for the community."
Harvey, M., & DiGiammerino, D. (1981). Anti-social behavior
in urban parks: A prospectus. Kent, OH: Department of Geography,
Kent State University.
Hassinger, J. R. (1983). Attributes of urban environments feared
by handgun carriers. EDRA (Environmental Design Research Association),
14, 113-117.
Hassinger, J. R. (1985). Fear of crime in public environments.
Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 2, 289-300.
Heal, K., & Laycock, G. (Eds.). (1986). Situational crime
prevention: From theory into practice. London: H.M.S.O.
Healy, R. J. (1968). Design for security. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
Heinzelmann, F. (1981). Crime prevention and the physical environment.
In D. Lewis (Ed.), Reactions to Crime (pp. 87-101). Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage.
Hesseling, R. B. P. (1992). Displacement: A review of the empirical
literature. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Crime Prevention Studies:
Vol. 3 (pp. 197-230). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Henig, J., & Maxfield, M. G., (1978). Reducing fear of crime:
Strategies for intervention. Victimology, 3, 297-313.
Henshel, R., & Carey, S. (1975). Deviance, deterrence and
knowledge of sanctions. In R. Henshel & R. Silverman (Eds.),
Perception in Criminology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Herbert, D. (1982). The geography of urban crime. Harlow,
UK: Longman.
"This book is the latest in a series called Topics
in Applied Geography. (It) provides the reader with a superficial
overview of the field, some useful examples for teachers; presents
detailed description of spatial patterns, distributions, and
correlates and explores ways in which geographical research can
widen its horizons and hopefully reorder its priorities, especially
with regard to policy formulation."
Herbert, D., & Hyde, S. (1984). Residential crime and the
urban environment. A report for the Economic and Social Research
Council.
Herbert, D., & Hyde, S. (1985). Environmental criminology:
Testing some area hypotheses. Transactions I.B.G., 10, 259-274.
Herzog, T., & Smith, G. A. (1988). Danger, mystery, and environmental
preference. Environment and Behavior, 20, 320-344.
Heywood, I., Hall, N., & Redhead, P. (1992). Is there
a role for spatial information systems in formulating multi-agency
crime prevention strategies? In D. J. Evans, N. R. Fyfe and D.
T. Herbert (Eds.), Crime, policing and place: Essays in environmental
criminology (pp. 73-92). New York: Routledge.
"This chapter considers...a spatial database and
geographic information system (GIS) approach to the storage,
management and manipulation of crime-related community data."**
Hierlihy, D. (1991). Green spaces/safer places: A forum on planning
safer parks for women. (Available from Safe City Committee, City
of Toronto Planning & Development Dept., 18th Floor, East
Tower, City Hall, Toronto, Ontario M5H 2N2).
Hindelang, M. (1974). Public opinion regarding crime, criminal
justice, and related topics. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 11, 101-116.
Hindelang, M. (1976). Criminal victimizations in eight American
cities: A descriptive analysis of common theft and assault. Cambridge,
MA: Ballinger.
Hindelang, M., Gottfredson, M., & Garafolo, J. (1978). Victims
of personal crime: An empirical foundation for a theory of personal
victimization. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Hope, T. & Shaw, M. (Eds.). (1988). Communities and crime
reduction . London: H.M.S.O.
"The purpose of this book, which represents the
outcome of a conference convened by the Home Office Research
and Planning Unit in 1986, is to bring together some current
ideas, experience, practice and policy, from those who have been
working on the problems of how to prevent crime....In so doing,
it is hoped to clarify directions for future policy and practice.
The authors, coming as they do from a number of different countries
and backgrounds, illustrate the current collective concern with
crime prevention (p. 1)."
Hough, M. (1987). Offenders' choice of target: Findings
from victim surveys. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3,
355-367.
This paper discusses research on offender decision making
and presents results from the1982 and1984 British Crime Surveys
(BCS). The discussion of previous research is effective, particularly
in pointing out difficulties posed by various methods. The BCS
results presented focus on burglary. With over 11,000 homes
surveyed in the BCS the author's findings bear consideration.
He writes that crime surveys "offer a useful corrective
to some of the distortions in conventional studies of target
selectionThe main points to emerge about burglars' choice of
targets are as follows:
oproximity is a key factor determining choice of target for
most burglars;
oburglars select poor homes no less than those with average
incomes, but affluent homes are more at risk than others;
oaccessibility factors are taken in account-homes frequently
left empty and those with rear access are more vulnerable, for
example; and as many as half of all burglaries end in failure
(p. 366)."
Hudson, C. (1983). Residential burglary. Home Office Research
Bulletin, 15. London: H.M.S.O.
Hull, R. B., & Harvey, A. (1989). Explaining the emotion
people experience in suburban parks. Environment and Behavior,
21, 323-345.
"In general, pleasure increases as tree density
increases and understory density decreases...arousal increases
with increasing understory vegetation density...and people prefer
parks that are both pleasant and arousing. Results suggest that
considerable control over affect can be exercised through manipulation
of a park's physical characteristics." The implications
of these findings for safety are reflected in the studies which
have investigated vegetation from the safety standpoint. Those
results of those works converge with those of these authors
in that lower vegetation is perceived negatively and arousal
increases with increased understory. Heightened feelings of
awareness from a perception of lowered safety may account for
this study's findings on increased arousal.
Hunter, A., & Baumer, T. (1982). Street traffic, social integration
and fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 52, 122-131.
Hunter, R. D., & Jeffery, C. R. (1992). Preventing convenience
store robbery through environmental design. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.),
Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. New York:
Harrow & Heston.
J
Jackson, B. (1969).
A thief's primer. New York: MacMillan.
This book
delves into the life and definition of so called 'career criminals'.
In a unique format it consists of the recorded and recompiled
comments of such an individual, in this case a thief, whose trust
the author had earned during contact within a correctional facility.
Although dated, the thief's discourses are detailed and comprehensive.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities.
New York: Random House.
Jeffery, C. R. (1971). Crime prevention through environmental
design. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Jeffery, C. R. (1976). Criminal behavior and the physical
environment. The American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 149-174.
Three articles in this issue are most noteworthy: Jeffery's
'Criminal behavior and the physical environment: A perspective,'
Dennis C. Duffala's 'Convenience stores, armed robbery, and physical
environmental features,' and Thomas A. Reppetto's 'Crime prevention
through environmental policy: A critique.' *
Jeffery, C. R. (1977). Crime prevention through environmental
design. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Environmental crime control adheres to the classical principles
of prevention of crime before it occurs, and certainty of consequence
for behavior, but shifts emphasis from punishment and the individual
offender to reinforcement and the environment.*
Jeffery, C. R., Hunter, D., & Griswood, J. (1987). Crime
prevention and computer analyses of convenience store robberies
in Tallahassee, Florida. Paper presented at Florida State University,
Tallahassee, FL.
Jeffrey, M. (1968). A burglar's life. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
Joyce, D. V. (1976, September). Crime in parks: 8 alternatives
that might work for your park system. Park Maintenance.
Jubenville, A., Twight, B. W., & Becker, R. H. (1987). Public
safety. Outdoor Recreation Management: Theory and Application.
State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
K
Kaiser, R. A., Fletcher,
J. A., & Steele, R. J. (1989). Legal, actual and perceived
implications of safety and security problems at public beaches.
Coastal Management, 17 (4).
Katzman, M. (1980). The contribution of crime to urban decline.
Urban Studies, 17, 277-286.
Keeley, R. M., & Edney, J. J. (1983). Model house designs
for privacy, security, and social interaction. Journal of Social
Psychology, 119, 219-228.
This brief paper was purposed to study interaction between
the sexes as "(c)ollege undergraduates were asked to construct
models of houses that would promote privacy, security, or social
interaction for occupants." While interesting for its own
sake, the study likewise touches lightly upon security factors
as perceived by the study population.
Kirk, N. L. (1986). Perceptions of safety in the campus environment.
Unpublished paper, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana.
Kirk, N. L. (1988). Factors affecting perceptions of safety in
a campus environment. EDRA (Environmental Design Research Association),
19, 215-222.
Kirk, N. L. (1988). Factors affecting perceptions of safety in
a campus environment. In J. Sime (Ed.), Safety in the built environment
(pp. 285-296). London: E. & F.N. Spon.
Kirk, N. L. (1989). Factors affecting perceptions of social safety
in public open spaces. Unpublished masters thesis, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana.
Knopf, R. C., & Dustin, D. L. (1992). A multidisciplinary
model for managing vandalism and depreciative behavior in recreation
settings. In M. Manfredo (Ed.), Influencing human behavior: Theory
and application in recreation and tourism (pp. 209-261). ChampaignUrbana,
IL: Sagamore Press.
Koehler, C. T. (1988). Urban design and crime: A partially
annotated bibliography. Chicago, IL: Council of Planning Librarians,
No. 218.
This work consists of 1) a brief Introduction, 2) a section
on General Theory and Applications, and 3) a section on Urban
Design and Crime, yielding a total of twenty-one pages in all.
The majority of works cited pertain to urban planning and architecture,
specifically housing. While many of the pieces listed in this
work may also be found in this bibliography, there are a great
many which are not listed herein.
Kornblum, W., & Williams, T. (1983). New Yorkers and Central
Park: A report to the Central Park Conservancy. New York: Sociology
Department, Graduate Center, CUNY.
Kowalski, G. S., Dittmann, R. L., Jr., & Bung, W. L. (1980).
Spatial distribution of criminal offenses by States, 1970-1976.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 4-25.
Kramer, J. J. (Ed.). (1977). The role of behavioral sciences
in physical security. National Bureau of Standards.
Kreps, G. M (1977). A study of crime in rural Ohio: The relationship
between ecological factors and a rural crime index (Doctoral
dissertation, Ohio State University). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 39 (5). (University Microfilms No. 77-24, 653)
Krupat, E., & Kubzansky, P. E. (1987). Designing to deter
crime. Psychology Today, (Oct.), 58-61.
Koppel, H. (1987). Lifetime likelihood of victimization. Technical
Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of
Justice Statistics.
L
Landles, R. A. (1970).
Criminal activity in selected Seattle parks. Seattle, WA: Department
of Parks and Recreation.
Latane, B., & Darley, J. (1970). The unresponsive bystander:
Why doesn't he help? New York: Appleton-Centry-Croft.
Law enforcement: Citizens safety in parks and recreation. (1970,
November). Parks and Recreation.
Laycock, G., & Heal, K. (1989). Crime prevention: The British
experience. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography
of crime. New York: Routledge.
Leach, B,. Lesiuk, E., & Morton, P .E.. (1986). Perceptions
of fear in the urban environment. Women and Environments, Spring,
10-12.
LeBeau, J. L. (1987a). Environmental design as a rationale for
prevention. In E. H. Johnson (Ed.), Handbook on crime
LeBeau, J. L. (1987b). The journey to rape: Geographic distance
and the rapist's method of approaching the victim. Journal of
Police Science and Administration, 15, 129-161.
Lee, R. (1972). The social definition of outdoor recreation places.
In W. Burch (Ed.), Social behavior, natural resources and the
environment. New York: Harper & Row.
Lee, Y., & Egan, F. (1972). The geography of urban crime:
The spatial pattern of serious crime in the City of Denver. Proceedings
of the Association of American Geographers, 4, 59-64.
LeJeune, R. (1977). The management of a mugging. Urban Life,
6, 123-148.
LeJeune, R., & Alex, N. (1973). On being mugged: The event
and its aftermath. Urban Life and Culture, (October), 259-287.
The authors interviewed 24 victims of 'muggings', having
them relive their experiences, their feelings, and any meanings
they attached to the incident. The article was written at a
time when this nation was just beginning to pay attention to
this form of personal attack. Hence, much of what it has to
offer is victim response, rather than empirical data or quantifiable
data. This may be attributable to the sociological background
of the researchers. None-the-less, the reader can expect to
find insights into the process of muggings (including victim
response), but more so into the changed psyche of the victim,
who, the authors say, begins to see the city as "a jungle".
Also of considerable interest is the discussion of victims'
feelings of safety in familiar environments. The authors suggest
that "ecological sentiments may act as blinders" to
changes in safety. That is, they failed to accept or recognize
how their environment was changing over the years, or even over
a matter of minutes in the case of a mugging itself.
Lentz, P. Sternhall, R., & Lyle, C. (1977, April). The limits
of lighting: The New Orleans experiment in crime reduction. The
Mayor's Criminal Justice Coordinating Council.
Letkemann, P. (1973). Crime as work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
LevyLeboyer, C. (1984). Vandalism: Behavior and motivations.
New York: North Holland Printing.
Lewis, D. A. (Ed.). (1981). Reactions to crime. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage.
Lewis, D. A., & Maxfield, M. G. (1980). Fear in the neighborhoods:
An investigation of the impact of crime. Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 160-189.
Lewis, D. A., & Salem, G. (1981). Community crime prevention:
An analysis of a developing strategy. Crime and Delinquency,
27, 405-421.
Ley, D., & Cybriwsky, R. (1974). Urban graffiti as territorial
markers. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 64,
491-505.
Ley, D., & Cybriwsky, R. (1974). The spatial ecology of stripped
cars. Environment and Behavior, 6, 53-67.
Light, R., Nee, C., and Ingham, H. (1993). Car theft: The offender's
perspective. Home Office Research Study (No. 130). London, UK:
HMSO.
Loewen, L. J., Steel, G. D., & Suedfeld, P. (1993). Perceived
safety from crime in the urban environment. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 13, 323-331.
Logie, R. H., Wright, R., & Decker, S. H. (1992). Recognition
memory performance and residential burglary. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 6, 109-123.
"This paper reports two studies of recognition memory
performance in groups of juvenile residential burglars. Memory
performance of the burglars was compared in Experiment 1 with
police officers and a group of adult householders. In Experiment
2 a second group of juvenile burglars was compared with a group
of juvenile offenders who had no experience of housebreaking.
All groups were asked first to identify houses in photographs
that would be attractive or otherwise to burglars. Subsequently,
subjects were given a surprise recognition test where, in some
photographs, physical features of houses was significantly better
members of the law-abiding public. In Experiment 2 the juvenile
burglars' recognition memory performance was significantly better
than the other offenders. These results are interpreted in terms
of the burglary subjects possessing a level of expertise associated
with their experience of offending."
Lowman, J. (1983). Geography, crime and social control. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
BC, Canada.
Lowman, J. (1989). The geography of social control: Clarifying
some themes. In D. Evans & D. Herbert (Eds.), The geography
of crime. New York: Routledge.
Luedtke, G. & Associates (1970). Crime and the physical city:
Neighborhood design techniques for crime prevention. Springfield,
VA: National Technical Information Service.
Lynch, G., & Atkins, S. (1988). The influence of personal
security fears on women's travel patterns. Transportation, 15,
275-277.
M
MacDonald, J.
E., & Gifford, R. (1989). Territorial cues and defensible
space theory: The burglar's point of view. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 9, 193-205.
To test
Newman's 'defensible space' theory incarcerated burglars were
interviewed as they rated photos taken of residences on "vulnerability".
"As the theory predicts, easily surveillable houses were
rated as the least vulnerable targets. Contrary to the theory,
evidence of territorial concern had no effect...or actually increased
vulnerability.
Macleod, L. (1989). The city for women: No safe place. Ottawa,
Canada: Secretary of State Canada for the European & North
American Conference of Urban Safety & Crime Prevention.
Maguire, M. (1980). The impact of burglary upon victims. British
Journal of Criminology, 20, 261-275.
Maguire, M., & Bennett, T. (1982). Burglary in a dwelling:
The offense, the offender, and the victim. London: Heinemann.
Malt, H. L., & Associates, Inc. (1972). An analysis of
public safety as related to the incidence of crime in parks and
recreation areas in central cities. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development. (272 pgs.; NTIS No. PB220770).
This extensive report remains one of the most detailed
examinations of crime in recreation areas to date. Sixteen cities
were studied out of the 49 initially contacted. Three categories
of parks (sub-neighborhood, neighborhood, community) were examined
in each of the cities. City officials and park patrons were
queried, and official statistics were compiled. Among the goals
of the study were determination of: 1) the primary crime problem(s)
facing the parks, 2) which parks were experiencing crime problems,
3) the sources of the problems, and 4) the amounts and types
of crimes occurring. Also examined were attitudes of the public.
It is worth noting that several of the report's general findings
mirror our own findings some twenty-three years later. [Persons
wishing to obtain a copy of the report may be forced to contact
the library at HUD]
Maltz, M. D., Gordon, A. C., & Friedman, W. (1990). Mapping
crime in its community setting: Event geography analysis. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Mann, L., & Hageirk, G. (1971, September). The new environmentalism:
Behaviorism and design. Journal of the American Institute of
Planners.
Martin, S. (1994, August). Ripped off: In the time it takes
you to read this headline, this man can steal your bike. Bicycling,
pp. 41-45.
This article, which discusses means for theft of bicycles
with bike thieves, reports briefly on the occurrence of so-called
"bike-jackings" in urban recreation areas.
Matthews, R. (1992). Developing more effective strategies for
curbing prostitution. In R. V. Clarke (Ed.), Situational crime
prevention: Successful case studies. New York: Harrow & Heston.
Mawby, R. I. (1977). Defensible space: A theoretical and empirical
appraisal. Urban Studies, 14, 169-179.
The author argues that by oversimplifying the nature of
crime and the qualities of defensible space, Newman has failed
to consider the possibilities for contradictions within the key
elements of the theory that might also threaten security.*
Mayhew, P. (1979). Defensible space: The current status of a
crime prevention theory. The Howard Journal, 18, 150-159.
Mayhew, P. (1984). Target hardening: How much of an answer. In
R. Clarke & T. Hope (Eds.), Coping with burglary. Boston:
Kluwe-Nijhoff.
Mayhew, P., Clarke, R., Burrows, J., Hough, J., & Winchester,
S. (1979). Crime in public view (Home Office Research Study No.
49). London: H.M.S.O.
An excellent short monograph assessing the use of surveillance
to reduce different types of crime. The authors argue that 'casual'
surveillance by the public is generally less effective than surveillance
by residents and employees of an environment.*
Mayhew, P., Clarke, R., Sturman, A., & Hough, M. (1976).
Crime as opportunity (Home Office Research Study No. 34). London:
H.M.S.O.
McCormick, M. (1974). Robbery prevention: What the literature
reveals--A literature review and annotated bibliography with
a list of information sources. La Jolla, CA: Western Behavioral
Sciences Institute.
McDonald, A. D., & Newcomer, R. J. (1973). Differences
in perception of a city park as a supportive or threatening environment.
In D. Gray & D. A. Pelegrino (Eds.), Reflections on the recreation
and park movement. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown Co.
"This paper reports on a pilot study which was intended
to find out how and in what ways a city park is important, i.e.,
supportive to its elderly users and to determine why other elderly
persons who live in proximity to the park do not use it."
McInnes, P., Burgess, G., Hann, R., & Axon, L. (1982). The
environmental design and management (EDM) approach to crime prevention
in residential environments (User Report, No. 1984-84). Ottawa,
Canada: Report for the Research Division of the Department of
the Solicitor General, Programs Branch.
McIntyre, J. (1967). Public attitudes toward crime and law enforcement.
Annals, 374, 34-46.
McKenzie, J. S., & McKenzie, R. L. (1978). Composing urban
spaces for security, privacy and outlook. Landscape Architecture,
Sept., 392-398.
McNamara, J. (1984). Safe and sane: The sensible way to protect
yourself, your loved ones, your property and possessions. New
York: Putnam.
McPherson, M. (1978). Realities and perception of crime at the
neighborhood level. Victimology, 3, 319-328.
Merry, S. E. (1981). Defensible space undefended: Social factors
in crime control through environmental design. Urban Affairs
Quarterly, 16, 397-422.
"The notion that crime can be prevented through environmental
design is a recent and promising idea emerging from the fields
of architecture and urban planning. However, despite intriguing
correlation's between crime rates and features of building design,
we understand little about the social processes which induce
residents to intervene to stop crimes and disorderly behavior
in the spaces around them. This article investigates the conditions
under which residents of an American inner-city housing project
act and fail to act to defend both architecturally defensible
and undefensible spaces. Because of the fragmented social fabric,
even architecturally defensible spaces here are undefended."**
Merton Borough. (1994). Designing out crime. Morden, Surrey:
Available from Planning Services Dept., Merton Civic Centre,
London Road, Morden, Surrey SM4 5DX, UK.
Michael, S. E., & Hull, R. B. (1994). Effects of vegetation
on crime in urban parks. Interim report for the U.S. Forest Service
and the International Society of Arboriculture.
Mieczkowski, T. (1986). Geeking up and throwing down: Heroin
street life in Detroit. Criminology, 24, 645-666.
The authors reports an ethnographic study of 15 street-level
heroin dealers done over 3 months. Findings relevant to CPTED
include that since World War II heroin sales have moved increasingly
away from the fixed locations of the "Dope-Pad System"
towards "runners" and "crews" dealing on
the street. He further found that "the runner systemis
designed to market heroin in public places, most typically either
at the curbside of public roads or other open locales such as
areas in front of shops and stores, playgrounds, parks, and schoolyards
(p. 648)." "Stations", or selling positions,
were typically on sidewalks or just off of roadways. Planned
escapes were found in crews, as were the need for "guns"
(i.e., armed crew guards) to be able to "observe and monitor"
the surroundings. Further, the surrounding environment was regularly
used for caching a stash of drugs and/or money. This latter
tactic was also uncovered by Michael and Hull (1994).
Miller, E. S. (1981). Bryant Park: A comprehensive evaluation
of its image and use with implications for urban open space design.
New York: City University of New York, Center for Human Environments.
Miller, E. S. (1981). Crime threat to land value and neighborhood
vitality. In P.J. Brantingham & P.L. Brantingham (Eds.),
Environmental criminology (pp. 111-119). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Minor, W. (1978). Deterrence research: Problems of theory and
method. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law Society
Association, Minneapolis, MN.
Molumby, T. (1976). Patterns of crime in a university housing
project. American Behavioral Scientist, 20, 247-259.
The author of this early work employs spatial analysis
to study location of crimes. The study lacks a theoretical basis
for conclusions, or hypotheses to test spatial theory. Causes
of patterns in the study may reflect some reading into the findings
as far as causes of patterns are concerned.
Molumby, T. (unknown). Evaluation of the effect of physical design
changes on criminal behavior (Doctoral dissertation, St. Ambrose
University).
Moore, M. H., & Trojanowikz, R. C. (1988, November). Policing
and the fear of crime. Perspectives on Policing, 3.
Moran, R., & Dolphin, C. (1986). The defensible space concept:
Theoretical and operational explication. Environment and Behavior,
18, 396-416.
More, T. A. (1985). Central city parks: A behavioral perspective.
Unpublished paper, Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.
The author "monitored the use of two central city
parks--one in Boston, one in Hartford--around the clock during
the summer of 1978, recording the social characteristics and
behaviors of the park users." The result is a unique look
into the patterns of use in two urban parks. Included within
the study were figures on deviant behavior (e.g., selling marijuana),
problem behaviors (e.g., fighting, begging), and other actions
which were either unlawful or indicated possible criminal characteristics.
The findings suggested "that people's use of public parks
can be influenced by the park's landscape." Specific design
elements are discussed with regard to their impact on users (e.g.,
vegetation, pathways, edge effects).
Moriarty, T. (1975). Crime, commitment and the responsive bystander:
Two field experiments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
31, 370-376.
Muluhill, E., & Tumin, M. (1969). Crimes of violence, 1-3.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Musheno, M. C., Levine, J. P., & Palumbo, D. J. (1977, February).
Is "defensible space" a defensible theory?: An evaluation
of closed-circuit television as a crime prevention strategy.
Presented at the National Conference on Criminal Justice sponsored
by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Washington,
DC.
N
Nager, A. R., &
Wenworth, W. R. (1976). Bryant Park: A comprehensive evaluation
of its image and use with implications for urban open space design.
New York: City University of New York, Center for Human Environments.
Nasar, J.L., & Fisher, B.S. (1992). Design for vulnerability:
Cues and reactions to fear of crime. Sociology and Social Research,
76, 48-58.
The authors describe physical environment cues which may
affect the public's fear of crime. In the process they developed
a theory regarding the relationship between these cues, fear,
and consequent reactions. The study examined the physical environment
of university campuses. Cues which heightened fear were: "poor
prospect for the passerby due to inadequate lighting, blocked
escape for the passerby, and concealment for the offender".
Responses to cues and fear were also recorded. The study's
results are consistent with recent findings which suggest that
informed design of micro-level physical settings and their features
may be an effective means for deterring criminals. Consequently,
the authors suggest that it may also be effective at reducing
fear. As this and other studies point out, although fear may
not be an adequate predictor of crime, it has salient negative
consequences which effect people even in the absence of experienced
crime. Article includes photographs and site plans of the study
areas.
Nasar, J. L., & Fisher, B. S. (1993). "Hot spots"
of fear and crime: A multi-method investigation. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 13, 187-206.
This study takes a different slant on examining the geography
of crime. It differentiates between macro and micro-level site
characteristics, examining how the latter may contribute to concentrated
areas of crime, or 'hot spots'. Although this article does not
offer the first investigation of hot spots, it does provide the
most thorough discussion to date. Prospect, concealment and
boundedness were the proximate cues studied, with female college
students and campus police serving as subjects. Fear was also
examined on the same levels. "Hot spots of fear and crime
converged at the micro level. Both fear and crime increased
in areas characterized by low prospect, high concealment, and
high boundedness." Design measures are discussed regarding
micro level deterrence (e.g., lighting, vegetation maintenance,
cameras).
Nasar, J. L., Fisher, B. S., & Grannis, M. (1993). Proximate
physical cues to fear of crime. In J. L. Nasar (Ed.), Landscape
and urban planning: Special issue on urban design research, 26,
161-178.
Nasar, J. L., Julian, D., Buchman, S., Humphreys, D., & Mrohaly,
M. (1983). The emotional quality of scenes and observation points:
A look at prospect and refuge. Landscape Planning, 10, 355-361.
National Crime Prevention Institute. (1986). Understanding crime
prevention. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Nee, C., & Taylor, M. (1988). Residential burglary in the
Republic of Ireland: A situational perspective. The Howard Journal,
27, 105-116.
Neiburg, H. (1974). Crime prevention by urban design. Society,
12, 41-47.
Newman, O. (1972a). Defensible space: Crime prevention through
urban design. New York: Macmillan.
The original publication of this book in 1972 changed
the nature of the crime prevention and environmental design field.
The book details and describes the 'defensible space' theory,
and includes extensive discussion of crime and the physical form
of housing based on crime data analysis from New York City public
housing.*
Newman, O. (1972b). Defensible space: People and design in the
violent city. London: Architectural Press.
Newman, O. (1973a). Architectural design for crime prevention.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Newman, O. (1973b). A design for improving residential security.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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This handbook examines how different social, physical,
managerial, and economic factors combine to produce secure housing.
Other chapters cover the evolution of multi-family housing,
design guidelines for buildings, site planning guidelines, two
prototypical designs, and discussions regarding security hardware.*
Newman, O., & Frank, K. (1980). Factors influencing crime
and instability in urban housing developments. Washington, DC:
National Institute of Justice, LEAA, U.S. Government Printing
Office.
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& P
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This brief paper offers support for the authors' predictions
concerning the relationship between lighting and aggression.
In a somewhat unusual test, subjects' willingness to punish
fellow participants via an electrical shock system (which offered
varying magnitudes of current) was monitored as contact with
the 'victim' was decreased via lighting and physical proximity.
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"crime- and fear-related features" of the urban residential
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'defensible space' features) while, theoretically, the 'disorder'
thesis, which suggests that residents' confidence in their neighborhood
will be negatively impacted by physical incivilities, was tested,
with support being found for it. Their findings are in agreement
with many others. The authors point out that an important next
step is to isolate "exactly what aspects of the environment
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Because it is committed against physical objects and because
physical design and setting play an important role, vandalism
is the ultimate 'environmental' crime. Often misunderstood by
designers, planners, facility managers, and administrators, vandalism
can be more effectively controlled through an understanding of
the patterns and environmental context in which it occurs. Social
situations conducive to vandalism are discussed, e.g., unstable
neighborhoods, insensitive school administrators and teachers,
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measures in two parking areas. Recognizing that theft of autos
and thefts from autos require different preventative measures,
the author examined changes in each type of crime. The author
suggests that adequate surveillance, either formal or informal,
is the most important measure which can be taken in attempting
to reduce offenses. Design solutions are offered for proactive
and reactive attempts to secure parking areas, including parking
structures.
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(The) author investigates the association of social and
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areas of a country or communities and neighborhoods within a
city. He approaches the subject in terms of considering the
quality of life in communities undergoing change. Identifies
a number of critical criminogenic factors: (1) location of offenders
relative to their victims, (2) attractiveness of communities
to offenders, (3) offender awareness of criminal opportunities,
(4) offender case of entry and egress of communities to be victimized,
(5) mixed land use, (6) the location of certain legal and illegal
businesses.*
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Crime. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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spatial behavior. The Pennsylvania Geographer, 13, 10-18.
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Research.
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Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 369-386.
This study included 299 women from metropolitan cities
around the United States. The authors identified a pair of precautionary
actions used by women: "avoiding dangerous situations and
managing risks in the face of possible danger." Fear, perceived
physical competence, race and education were found to be strong
predictors of avoidance. Proximal physical cues which indicate
danger or decay (e.g., vandalism) were found to prompt risk-management
more so than do general crime rates. This ties in with micro-environment
findings and 'hot spot' research which suggest that individuals
react to a given situation rather than to regional or community
crime patterns.
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of attachment and social interaction in urban neighborhoods.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 55-66.
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American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 653-665.
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and delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, 339-354.
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housing. Environment and Behavior, 20, 700-720.
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Effects on residents' satisfaction with living environment and
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vandalism problems in medium-density housing in Australia. Report
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This piece broke new ground as it exploring the following
three objectives: "1) to determine whether judgments of
personal safety in urban recreation sites show sufficient reliability
to be usefully studied, 2) to use such judgments to identify
park design features affecting perception of security in urban
parks, and 3) to identify the relations between visibility, perceived
security, and perceived attractiveness of urban parks."
Findings showed "...high security is associated with open
areas with long view distances and with signs of development
and nearby populated areas. On the other hand, high scenic quality
depends on the presence of natural vegetation....and is lowered
by manmade features." Unfortunately, little similar research
has been done thus far to further explore these important findings.
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physical feature it investigates. Parking areas, although central
to the public's daily routines and frequently the scenes of personal
assaults, receive little attention. A large group of subjects
(college students) rated photographs of parking areas for attractiveness
and security. Findings were similar to those of Schroeder and
Anderson (1984) in that increased amounts of vegetation resulted
in reduced ratings of perceived safety, although attractiveness
ratings, given orderliness and proper upkeep, were generally
higher. This suggests that, short of removing or severely pruning
vegetation, consistent, quality upkeep of plants following a
planting plan which suggests order may counter the potentially
negative impacts of vegetation, while also improving aesthetic
appeal.
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when offenders, targets and a lack of guardians converge a criminal
event results. Over 300,000 calls to police in Minneapolis were
compared with addresses to which responses were made. It was
found that some 50% of the calls came from only 3% of the places.
These locations, termed 'hot spots', have been dealt with in
a variety of manners, some of which the authors discuss. They
suggest that, although eradication of crime settings (e.g., crack
houses) and of routine activities of criminals (e.g., bars) will
not remove crime, regulating the "routine activities of
places may be regulated far more easily than the routine activities
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